Choosing a Topic 

Objectives for Choosing a Topic

• Your main objective should be to end up with a topic that is neither too broad nor too narrow for the purposes of your assignment.

• Before finalizing your choice, make sure that sufficient material is available on the topic.

• If your topic is a controversial one, consider the need for material representing either a neutral overview of the topic, or enough material on each major viewpoint to achieve a balance. Remember that even in an opinion piece, material from the "other side" can be used to strengthen your own thesis.

• If your topic is a longstanding issue, make sure that current information is available if this is required for the assignment. While historical information is important, having both is usually preferable for a well-rounded presentation.

• Finally, make sure your topic choice appeals to your own interests as much as possible, as this will increase your enthusiasm for thorough research and high quality results.

Fine-tuning Your Topic Choice

Know the expected length of your paper or presentation before you begin your topic search. Having too wide of a scope for material can lead to difficulties in framing a thesis or argument. Too narrow of a scope will leave you with insufficient material to support your point of view.

If your topic seems too broad:

• Try narrowing it down by selecting one aspect of the topic; you could concentrate on groups involved, or areas of the world affected, or time periods covered.

• A search on your topic using a library catalog or other online database can yield titles or key words representing possible subtopics to narrow your focus.

If your topic seems too narrow:

• Think about how your topic affects things and people or places associated with it. How does your topic affect you? What are some broader implications? Historical effects? New innovations, controversies, or laws?

• Topics that have been in the public eye for a significant time period are generally easier to broaden. If a topic is very new, you may not be able to find very much printed information on it.

• As with narrowing a topic, a library or online search can provide other terms that might help to broaden your approach.

• A graphic organizer, such as a concept web, can be a big help in "branching out" from a central idea to possible parallel topics and will help you organize your ideas.

Evaluating a Website 

Contents

1. Evaluate the URL 

2. Evaluate the Author or Publisher 

3. Evaluate Timeliness 

4. What Do Others Think? 

Related Information

Points of View

Periodicals

When forming the idea for a paper, it may be quicker to access information through the Internet than to visit your school or community library, but because the quality of information on the Internet varies so widely, it can often take longer to evaluate. It is always a good idea to ask yourself whether or not you can find information more quickly and reliably from other sources. Here are some steps you can follow to help decide whether or not the information you find on the Internet is appropriate for your project.

1. Evaluate the URL

Since search engine results list URLs, you can begin evaluating a website before you visit it. If the URL begins with a commercial ISP (aol.com, earthlink.net, msn.com, etc.) or free hosting service (myspace.com, geocities.com, blogger.com, etc.) and contains a person's name or screen name, the link points to a personal website. Information from personal websites often takes longer to verify.

Keeping the type of information you're looking for in mind, ask yourself whether you're likely to find reliable information from the government, educational institutions or not-for-profit organizations (.gov, .edu, .org). If you're looking for sites from other countries, you may want to consider the country code (.ca, .uk, .au, etc.).

2. Evaluate the Author or Publisher

Once you've clicked through to a website and scanned it to see if it contains the kind of information you are looking for, you will want to ask yourself a few questions about who wrote or published the information, and for what purpose. If the page is signed and contains the author's email address, you may wish to check the site for the author's biography or do a search on the author's name to see if he or she is a recognized expert on your topic. If the page is not attributed to an author, you will want to ask yourself who published the information (usually the owner of the domain name in the URL) and whether or not they claim responsibility for information appearing on their site. If they do, you can evaluate the publisher as you would the author. Check the home page for information about the publisher's purpose (often found in links titled "About Us," "Philosophy," "Background," etc.). If the website quotes other sources, an article in "The New York Times," for example, you should check "The New York Times," either through the paper's website or a newspaper database to verify that the article was quoted correctly.

3. Evaluate Timeliness

If you are researching a topic where timeliness is an important factor, make sure to check the website to find when the information was last updated. If a significant amount of time has passed, the author may have abandoned the site and the information may no longer be current. If the information is not dated at all, it is probably a good idea to look elsewhere.

4. What Do Others Think?

Another way to evaluate the usefulness of a website is to find out who is linking to it. If the websites of many reputable organizations or acknowledged experts on the topic you are researching link to the website you are evaluating from their own websites, the odds are better that the information is useful. To find out who is linking to a specific page, enter link:URL into a search engine. From these results, you can visit the linking pages to find out what others say about the site.

Writing a Thesis Statement 

Contents

TOO GENERAL: 

STILL TOO GENERAL: 

SPECIFIC: 

A thesis statement is a sentence stating the specific idea or opinion being addressed in a paper or essay, and is usually located in the first paragraph. It gives focus to your writing, answers questions your paper may evoke, and reflects your clear analysis of a subject, which are elements your reader requires.

The role of a thesis statement is to support your research; consequently, it develops after you have conducted your initial research. Framing too specific a thesis statement before conducting preliminary research may weaken your paper's foundation. A thesis statement may also change after preliminary research has begun. However, be certain to have your instructor approve of your newly formulated thesis statement.

Not every thesis is a statement of fact. Your opinion and views on a subject are very much infused into the thesis. For example, an English assignment asking if Prospero is a sympathetic character in Shakespeare's "The Tempest" can inspire different student statements.

The thesis statement should be a clearly stated position or purpose that is specific, rather than general. Here are some examples.

TOO GENERAL:

• "Weekends should be for relaxing, not working."

STILL TOO GENERAL:

• "Sundays are supposed to be for recreation and rest, and stores and businesses should not be open."

SPECIFIC:

• "Americans should be spending Sundays in recreation, rest, and restoration after a long work week; stores and businesses should not be open for the sake of the workers, as well as the consumers."

To create a strong thesis statement, you should first have a good command of your collected research or notes. Create a list of related words or phrases from your research, or write your opinions and observations of a subject. This will help you connect ideas in a unique way, and perhaps reveal an idea you hadn't considered before. These are all essential tasks you should perform before you set down your thesis and fashion the body of your paper.

Judging Fact vs. Opinion 

Contents

Fact 

Opinion 

Evaluating Facts and Opinions 

Mixing Facts and Opinions to Persuade 

When forming an idea for a research paper, it is useful to learn how to quickly tell the difference between fact and opinion. Developing this skill will help you evaluate the reliability of sources you may wish to include in your paper. Observing how writers combine facts and opinions to form arguments will help you write more effectively.

Fact

A fact is a statement that can be proved true or false, and usually performs one of the following functions:

• Facts tell what happened. Example: "When the U.S. Congress designated the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR), it set aside a small coastal section to study its oil potential."

• Facts tell what is happening now. Example: "The U.S. uses about 20 million barrels of oil a day."

• Facts state something that can be easily observed or verified. Example: "Alaska is home to two national forests."

Opinion

An opinion is a statement that cannot be proved true or false because it expresses a person's thoughts, beliefs, feelings or estimates. It usually performs one of the following functions:

• Opinions express worth or value. Example: "ANWR is a national treasure."

• Opinions say what should or should not be thought or done. Example: "Congress must open ANWR to oil and gas discovery operations."

• Opinions predict that something will happen. Example: "Tapping into ANWR's oil will create hundreds of thousands of jobs throughout the United States."

Evaluating Facts and Opinions

• Ask if a statement can be proved true or false. If a statement can be proved true or false, it is a fact, if not, it is an opinion. Because opinions cannot be proved true or false, they must be evaluated in other ways.

• Does the author support his or her opinions with facts and statistics? If not, you may want to quote the author if he or she says something in a memorable way, but make sure you support the opinion with facts.

• Do the facts and statistics the author uses logically support his or her opinion? If not, the result is more likely to confuse the reader than to persuade. Make sure your own opinions are supported by facts.

• Does the author's experience, affiliations or worldview influence his or her opinion? If the author is obligated to reach a specific conclusion on a given topic, he or she is less likely to consider facts that oppose that conclusion. You should seek additional information.

Mixing Facts and Opinions to Persuade

• Persuasive statements often contain both fact and opinion. Example: "Because U.S. reliance on foreign oil is increasing and U.S. oil production is declining, Congress must approve oil and gas exploration in ANWR." The statements about oil consumption and production can be proved, but the conclusion drawn from these two facts is the author's opinion.

• Persuasive statements can be opinions disguised to look like facts. Example: "The world's scientists no longer doubt the fact that we are changing our atmosphere." It is almost impossible to prove anything about a group of people as large and diverse as "the world's scientists," but stating an opinion in definite terms can be persuasive.

Paying close attention to the ways authors use fact and opinion will give you insight into the many ways, subtle and not so subtle, that they are trying to influence you. Developing a keener awareness of these techniques will, in turn, help you in your own writing.

Evaluating a Website 

Contents

1. Evaluate the URL 

2. Evaluate the Author or Publisher 

3. Evaluate Timeliness 

4. What Do Others Think? 

When forming the idea for a paper, it may be quicker to access information through the Internet than to visit your school or community library, but because the quality of information on the Internet varies so widely, it can often take longer to evaluate. It is always a good idea to ask yourself whether or not you can find information more quickly and reliably from other sources. Here are some steps you can follow to help decide whether or not the information you find on the Internet is appropriate for your project.

1. Evaluate the URL

Since search engine results list URLs, you can begin evaluating a website before you visit it. If the URL begins with a commercial ISP (aol.com, earthlink.net, msn.com, etc.) or free hosting service (myspace.com, geocities.com, blogger.com, etc.) and contains a person's name or screen name, the link points to a personal website. Information from personal websites often takes longer to verify.

Keeping the type of information you're looking for in mind, ask yourself whether you're likely to find reliable information from the government, educational institutions or not-for-profit organizations (.gov, .edu, .org). If you're looking for sites from other countries, you may want to consider the country code (.ca, .uk, .au, etc.).

2. Evaluate the Author or Publisher

Once you've clicked through to a website and scanned it to see if it contains the kind of information you are looking for, you will want to ask yourself a few questions about who wrote or published the information, and for what purpose. If the page is signed and contains the author's email address, you may wish to check the site for the author's biography or do a search on the author's name to see if he or she is a recognized expert on your topic. If the page is not attributed to an author, you will want to ask yourself who published the information (usually the owner of the domain name in the URL) and whether or not they claim responsibility for information appearing on their site. If they do, you can evaluate the publisher as you would the author. Check the home page for information about the publisher's purpose (often found in links titled "About Us," "Philosophy," "Background," etc.). If the website quotes other sources, an article in "The New York Times," for example, you should check "The New York Times," either through the paper's website or a newspaper database to verify that the article was quoted correctly.

3. Evaluate Timeliness

If you are researching a topic where timeliness is an important factor, make sure to check the website to find when the information was last updated. If a significant amount of time has passed, the author may have abandoned the site and the information may no longer be current. If the information is not dated at all, it is probably a good idea to look elsewhere.

4. What Do Others Think?

Another way to evaluate the usefulness of a website is to find out who is linking to it. If the websites of many reputable organizations or acknowledged experts on the topic you are researching link to the website you are evaluating from their own websites, the odds are better that the information is useful. To find out who is linking to a specific page, enter link:URL into a search engine. From these results, you can visit the linking pages to find out what others say about the site.

Writing a Topic Sentence  

Topic sentences play an essential role in any well-written essay. The topic sentence states the main idea of the paragraph. It does for the paragraph what a thesis statement does for the essay as a whole: it serves as the unifying theme. Topic sentences also show the relationship between the paragraph and the thesis statement. Usually placed at the beginning of a paragraph, good topic sentences help guide the reader through the thought process of your essay. Because the topic sentence is supported by all subsequent sentences, topic sentences provide the additional benefit of keeping your writing on track.

The following paragraph from the essay "The AIDS Emergency in Africa" shows a good topic sentence in action.

      The magnitude of the global AIDS pandemic is reaching alarming

      new heights in the developing world. As of 2003, 42 million

      people have the HIV virus, and 29.4 million of them live in

      Africa. Yet, 99 percent of Africans who need life-extending

      anti-retroviral (ARV) medicines do not have access to them.

In the above paragraph, you will notice that the topic sentence is the most general. Like a good news headline, it provides the reader with the main idea at a glance. The sentences that follow it supply statistical evidence to support the topic sentence. The topic sentence relates the paragraph to the essay's thesis: that the nations of the world should help fund AIDS relief in Africa.

Though topic sentences often appear at the beginning of a paragraph, it is sometimes better to place them in the middle or at the end. While all of your paragraphs should relate back to the essay's thesis in some way, they won't all relate to each other. Beginning with a transitional sentence and saving the topic sentence for later can help a reader follow your train of thought more easily. When concluding an essay, it may be more effective to start with specifics and end by summarizing the main idea.

Not every paragraph requires a topic sentence. If one of your topics is supported by much more evidence than the others, it may make sense to break it up into two or more paragraphs to give your essay balance. Instead of repeating a topic sentence, you can demonstrate that you are continuing the thought with a phrase like "in addition" or "furthermore." In some paragraphs the topic will be obvious, making the topic sentence redundant.

Here is a quick checklist for writing effective topic sentences:

The topic sentence states the main idea of the paragraph.

The topic sentence shows the relationship between paragraph and thesis.

The topic sentence is the most general sentence in paragraph.

The topic sentence is supported by details in subsequent sentences.

Taking Good Notes 

Contents

Taking Notes while Reading Literature: Sticky Notes 

Taking Notes during Research 

Taking Notes in a Lecture or in Class 

Learning to take good notes is a skill with lifelong benefits. This guide provides helpful hints for writing better notes. The main point to keep in mind is that less is more: take down only the most important information in a way you will understand later.

Taking Notes while Reading Literature: Sticky Notes

• Using sticky notes or flags to jot down ideas, or mark special pages in books, is a good alternative to writing in the book margin, and the note or flag acts as a bookmark. Typical techniques include jotting down unfamiliar vocabulary, or making note of literary techniques you find on the page, such as foreshadowing or irony.

Taking Notes during Research

Organize notes. Regardless of whether you use index cards or a notebook, keep all of your notes stored in a single, easy-to-find location. Date each note, and name each source. Color-coding notes for ideas or sections of your research, for example a blue ink title for any information on the Boston Tea Party, and a red ink title for the Battle of Lexington and Concord, will also help keep your ideas organized.

Write one idea heading or quote on each note card or page. This helps organize the ideas or points you want to address in your research paper. Is the quote important? Does it help you understand the topic of research? If the answer to both of these questions isn't "yes," don't use the quote.

Write down all source information for citing. This includes the title, the page numbers, the author and/or editor, the year of publication, the publisher, and the city of publication. This is essential information for bibliographies, and if you write it down during your initial research, it will save you frustration and time hunting for it later.

Always use quotation marks around direct quotes from a work, to keep from unintentionally plagiarizing. Also mark the author of a quote, whether it's a researcher or a literary character, for reference when writing your paper.

Taking Notes in a Lecture or in Class

Stay Organized. Keep a separate set of notes for each class. This will make your notes easier to follow when you review them.

Sit as close to the front the classroom as possible. This makes it easier to hear the professor or teacher, and you'll have fewer distractions.

Listen Actively. Look at the speaker while s/he is speaking; listen for cues in the lecture, such as changes in inflection, and key words like "therefore," "furthermore," "more importantly," and "this is key…."; ask questions and be actively involved.

Review notes five minutes before class, and as soon as possible after the class. It keeps the information fresh in your mind and prepares you for future lectures and active listening. Use a highlighter to mark key points or questions.

Leave spaces or lines in your notes, and write down any questions you have. When you review your notes, the questions will give your review focus, and make you an active participant in studying. If you have comments for further insight, you can add these as well.

Don't write everything you hear. You can't be a student and a stenographer simultaneously. Few people can write as fast as a teacher is speaking. Jot down key words and relevant ideas instead.

Practice with different styles of note taking, and use what works best for you. Do you outline or use bullets? Do you write brief sentences, just a string of words, or words and symbols? Experiment with different styles of taking notes and find what is easiest and most effective for you. 

From Notes to Outline 

Contents

Tips for Writing a Good Outline 

Idea Map Outline 

Some people find outlining tedious, while others find it an important way to organize ideas and notes. Like any form of note taking, research, or writing for school, it is up to you to determine if outlining works for you.

Tips for Writing a Good Outline

Keep it simple. Capture the idea or point you want to make; don't include unnecessary information.

Write your thesis at the top of the outline to maintain focus throughout the outline.

Leave space for including questions and comments later.

Use Roman numerals and letters. Each Roman numeral should mark the beginning of a new paragraph or section, and the letters should be subjects addressed in that paragraph or section.

An example of a good, basic outline:

I.   Introduction

     a. Introduction to topic

     b. Thesis statement

II.  Body Paragraph 1.

     a. Supporting fact 1

     b. Supporting fact 2

     c. Supporting fact 3

         i. Sub fact

         ii. Sub fact

III. Body Paragraph 2.

     a. Supporting fact 1

     b. Counter argument

     c. Refuting fact

IV.  Conclusion

Idea Map Outline

Visual learners might prefer a pictorial or horizontal depiction of outlines, instead of a vertical, numerical view. Beginning with a main theme at the center, then branching out of it with secondary words or phrases, can help with brainstorming and outlining a research project.

Writing a Persuasive Essay 

Contents

What is a Persuasive Essay? 

Gather Your Thoughts and Take the Next Step 

Organization: The Anatomy of Persuasion 

Position/Thesis Statement: Express Yourself 

Building the Body of the Argument: Stronger is Better 

Organization & Support: Paragraphs and Topic Sentences 

Saying it with Style 

  Effective phrases for transition: 

  Effective phrases for emphasis: 

  Effective phrases for counterpoint: 

  Effective Conclusion: The Big Finish 

A Writer's Persuasion Checklist 

The purpose of this guide is to offer strategies for preparing a strong persuasive essay or debate. It will sharpen skills you might not realize you already have, making your work more accurate, clear, concise, logical, convincing, and respectful of opposing arguments.

What is a Persuasive Essay?

A persuasive essay makes a convincing argument in favor of or in opposition to an issue. Unlike a factual essay, a persuasive essay employs bias, or takes a side, in a carefully-argued point of view.

If you're a little nervous about tackling a persuasive essay, relax. You probably know more about persuasion than you think you do. Every day you express your opinions on fashion, sports, current events, entertainment, classes, or people. When you try to convince others of your views, you give reasons for your opinions. That is the start of any good persuasive essay or debate.

Gather Your Thoughts and Take the Next Step

Let's take those everyday situations and shape them into a model. Think before you speak or write, and outline your thoughts:

State your case.

Listen to the answer.

Respond with specifics. Offer good, factual supporting evidence or information.

Be respectful, and avoid personal attacks.

Stay on the subject.

Sum up your case.

Organization: The Anatomy of Persuasion

The keys to an effective persuasive essay are organization and support. Some refer to the structure with the acronym POSSE, which stands for:

Position/Thesis

Organization

Support

Style

Effective Conclusion

Others see the structure as consisting of an introduction/thesis statement, the body, and conclusion. Either way, an effective opinion or persuasive essay must accomplish the following:

Clearly state your purpose and opinion.

State a main point of argument.

Communicate the basic idea of that argument, with supporting evidence, and offer informed rebuttal of opposing views.

Position/Thesis Statement: Express Yourself

The thesis statement is the "mind" of your essay. Everything else must point back to it, to truly make the best case. Generally, it should be one or two sentences long.

The mind works best when organized. Ask yourself some questions before you write your thesis statement, and take the time to clarify the answers:

"What am I going to discuss?"

"How will I argue and support my views?"

"Which reasons will I give? Do I have evidence?"

Building the Body of the Argument: Stronger is Better

The body develops the thesis statement in order to give weight to your opinion and to advance the argument with each paragraph.

Organization & Support: Paragraphs and Topic Sentences

Paragraphs should have an organized flow of thoughts, each one set off by a strong topic sentence. Topic sentences guide readers to each point in the argument, leading them steadily to the conclusion. They're the "muscle" of your essay, and they show that you:

Can demonstrate an understanding of the opposing arguments relating to the issue. An understanding of the arguments makes one better equipped to persuade someone to accept a particular view.

Can counter another opinion with relevant evidence, and sound, respectful analysis. There should be no personal attacks against another author or speaker, and no extreme language.

Can present a logical flow of thoughts. The essay should be organized, and should not focus on unimportant details.

Can make a convincing argument. The essay should be more than a simple list of facts.

Saying it with Style

What words should you use to make your essay crystal clear and well-written? Before you write, read some examples of opinion and editorial articles in prominent newspapers and magazines. You may also want to highlight phrases from these categories: transition, emphasis, and counterpoint. Use a different color highlighter for each category.

Effective phrases for transition:

"Regarding"

"Admittedly"

"Consequently"

"As a result"

"Ultimately"

"According to"

"For this reason"

Effective phrases for emphasis:

"Moreover"

"In fact"

"Additionally"

"For example"

"In point of fact"

"As a matter of fact"

"Indeed"

Effective phrases for counterpoint:

"Conversely"

"On the other hand"

"However"

"Nevertheless"

"Notwithstanding"

"Nonetheless"

"Yet"

"Despite"

"Although"

"Instead"

Effective Conclusion: The Big Finish

In the conclusion, restate the thesis and argument, with supporting detail. An author's goal in writing an effective conclusion is to have the last word, and to express it effectively, leaving the reader with a strong impression.

A Writer's Persuasion Checklist

Does the author demonstrate an understanding of the opposing arguments relating to the issue?

Does the author counter the arguments with a rebuttal?

Are remarks thoughtful and respectful?

Is the essay organized?

Is the essay convincing?

Do all of the paragraphs work together to support the essay's thesis?

Is the conclusion sound and strong?

 Writing a Conclusion 

Contents

Techniques for Concluding an Essay 

When concluding an essay, it is important to remember that making a strong final impression can go a long way toward favorably shaping your reader's impression of the work as a whole. A good conclusion should help tie together the key ideas that you have presented. It should give your essay a feeling of completeness and finality, and leave your reader with something to think about.

Techniques for Concluding an Essay

• Restate your thesis. If you've written a good, persuasive essay, the evidence you provide may well change the reader's initial impression of your thesis statement. Taking a moment at the end to restate your main idea may give your reader the opportunity to see the idea in a new light as well.

• State a common theme. Especially in compare-and-contrast essays, such as essays comparing the work of two or more authors, you may want to conclude with a general idea that applies to all of your subjects. This can help shape the reader's impression of the essay as one coherent piece instead of several mini-essays.

Example: "Though Anthony Trollope often focused on the life of the wealthy and Charles Dickens on the life of the poor, both writers created vivid portraits of their life and times."

• Ask a question. One of the main purposes of a conclusion is to leave the reader with a strong final impression. Asking your reader to weigh the evidence you've presented and come up with his or her own impression can help achieve this goal.

Example: "Given the correlation between increased greenhouse gas emissions and changing weather patterns, do you think that humanity's relationship to global warming is purely coincidental?"

• Make a recommendation. If you've aroused your reader's interest in your topic, chances are you will leave them wondering what they can do next. You can make recommendations ranging from telling them where they can find additional information to citing organizations where they can contribute their time or money.

Example: "To find out how you can help prevent such cruel treatment of animals from continuing, you can contact the PETA Foundation."

• Make a prediction. Concluding your essay with a prediction can engage your reader in several different ways. It can show how your subject may impact the reader's life. It can encourage your reader to weigh your prediction by reviewing the facts. It can spur your reader to review the facts and come up with his or her own prediction.

Example: "If medical costs continue to spiral, Medicare will swallow the entire federal budget by 2022."

• Summarize your information. If your essay deals with difficult to understand subject matter or material with which your reader is likely to be unfamiliar, it may be useful to conclude your essay with a summary. Using your thesis statement and topic sentences from each paragraph as guidelines, you can create a summary that will help reinforce your essay's main ideas in the reader's mind.

• End with a quotation. If you come up with a particularly well-phrased expression of your essay's main idea during your research, you may want to save it for the end.

Example: "In defending the right to life, Pope John Paul II said, 'America can show the world the path to a truly humane future, in which man remains the master, not the product, of his technology.'"

 Citing Sources 

Contents

In-cite Quotations: 

Author’s Name in Text: 

Citing Two or More Works from the Same Author: 

Citing Anonymous Work: 

Citing Authors with the Same Last Name: 

Citing a Partial Quote: 

Literary Works 

Poetry 

Quoting Two to Three Lines of Poetry: 

Quoting More than Three Lines of Poetry: 

Spelling or Grammar in Poetry: 

Plays 

From a Database 

MLA Basic Electronic Citation Format: 

APA Basic Electronic Citation Format: 

When writing a paper, especially a research paper, you must cite any information or quotes that did not come from you. Even if you paraphrase information but do not use the exact quote, you must cite it. The citations are also known as footnotes, because they are often placed at the bottom of the page, below the main text. Citations direct readers to your bibliography, which provides complete information regarding the work you are citing. If you do not cite, you are stealing ideas, which is a form of plagiarism.

For this guide, all citation examples are in Modern Language Association (MLA) format. Other citation styles include American Psychological Association (APA) and Chicago (Chicago Style or Chicago Manual of Style).

In-cite Quotations:

There are several ways to cite a work in a paper. The most common is the in-cite quotation.

The in-cite quotation works the quote into the sentence, noting the author's name and the page number of the book in which the quote is found. Example: He writes that "This is a history book of sorts about so-called strategic planning" (Mintzberg, 1).

When citing, it is not necessary to add "p." after the page number. The reader will assume that any numbers are page numbers.

If you are citing other information, such as acts, scenes, chapters, articles, or line numbers, you must differentiate those from page numbers (See Plays).

Author’s Name in Text:

• If you specifically mention the author or work in a sentence, it is only necessary to cite the page number of reference, because you have already established who you are crediting for the information. Example: Mintzberg writes "This is a history book of sorts about so-called strategic planning" (1).

Citing Two or More Works from the Same Author:

• If you are using two or more sources from one author (for example, you are writing an essay comparing works by the same author), use the title of the work as well to clarify sources. Example: "This book began as one piece of a large work" (Mintzberg, The Rise and Fall of Strategic Planning, 1).

Citing Anonymous Work:

• If your source does not have an author, do not cite with the word "Anonymous"; cite the title of the work instead. This may come up if you are citing a pamphlet, religious work, or certain poems.

Citing Authors with the Same Last Name:

• If you are using two works by different authors of the same last name, such as Robert Browning and Elizabeth Barrett Browning, use the initial of the first name, followed by the last name. Example: R. Browning and E. Browning.

Citing a Partial Quote:

Sometimes, you may want the information at the beginning of a quote and the very end, but not necessarily the information in between. In this case, you have two options:

You can pick out the words and facts you want, and join them with your own words, or you can use the quote and omit the middle parts, replacing the omitted words with an ellipsis ("…").

Example of an original quote:

• "The story of the rise and fall of strategic planning, in other words, teaches us not only about formal techniques itself but also about how organizations function and how managers do and don’t cope with that functioning, also about how we, as human beings, think and sometimes stop thinking."

Example of the quote with omissions:

• "The story of the rise and fall of strategic planning…teaches us not only about formal techniques itself but also about how organizations function...."

Editing a quote in this way will cut down on the length of your paper, and will help you focus your point without the distraction of a complete quote (although partial quotes must also be cited).

Literary Works

Different forms of literature require different information in their citations. When citing literary works, page references should be cited along with the book title and chapter number [Example: (Fitzgerald, 187-188. Ch. 9)].

Classic novels are often republished after first publication, or bound together in one volume. Therefore, a reader with a different edition of the same work can find the information you reference.

Poetry

When citing poetry, rather than citing page numbers, cite line numbers using the word "line" or "lines."

Most poems have marked line numbers; in those cases where none are provided, count the lines yourself.

Cite the author's name in the bibliography, as well as the edition in which you found the poem and its editor.

Quoting Two to Three Lines of Poetry:

When quoting two or three lines of poetry, separate each line with a line break (/).

You can quote up to three lines of poetry within the text.

Quoting More than Three Lines of Poetry:

If you quote more than three lines of poetry, you must "set off the quote," meaning that the text should be left-indented one inch and single-spaced.

When you set off a quote, you do not have to put quotation marks around the lines as you do when quoting within the text.

The same goes for quoting a long passage in prose: if you have more than three lines of prose, set it off in the exact same way.

Spelling or Grammar in Poetry:

Do not modernize any spellings or grammar you see in the poem.

Even if there is a deep or odd indent in the line of a poem, do not change the grammar.

The author's style is sacred. For instance, poems such as Shakespeare's sonnets rely on specific syllabic rhythm, and must not be modified in any way.

Plays

Citations of plays are similar to both literary works and poetry, depending on their style.

Citing plays written in verse: If a drama is written in verse, treat it as a poem. If applicable, also note the act and scene. A citation for Act II, scene 2, lines 26-27 from a Shakespeare play would look something like this: (Shakespeare, II.ii.26-27).

Citing plays with verse and prose: For plays that use both verse and prose, use the style that best corresponds with the text.

There are two ways to quote dialogue from a play.

Incorporate the dialogue into a sentence: If you are incorporating the dialogue into your sentences, then you must note who says what in your citation (Romeo, Shakespeare, II.ii. 26-27).

Set the quote off: If you set off the quote, and two or more people are talking, then you do need to credit who says what as is noted in the play. If you are quoting a portion of a soliloquy or monologue and setting it off, and have already established who is speaking, you do not need to credit the speaker.

The choice of how to quote dialogue is up to you as the writer.

From a Database

To cite from a database, note the article title, journal name and standard bibliographic information, the database listing the article information, and the organization subscribing to the database.

MLA Basic Electronic Citation Format:

• Author's Last Name, First Name. "Title of work." Article's original source and publication date: page numbers. Database name. Publisher. Location from which the site was accessed. Date researcher visited the site. <Electronic Address, or URL, of the publisher>

APA Basic Electronic Citation Format:

Author (year of original sources). Article title. Original source of article, page numbers. (Retrieval date [month, day, year,] from [source] database ([name of database.

Creating a Bibliography 

Contents

Book 

Multiple Authors 

Magazine 

Newspaper 

Film 

Internet Articles 

When writing a research paper, it is important to cite works and to write a bibliography. A bibliography, also called a works cited page, provides source information, helps keep all resources and references together and organized, and tells the reader where you found your information.

A bibliography should be placed at the very end of the paper. The title of this page should be "bibliography" or "works cited," and it should alphabetically list every source you used in your paper, such as books, articles, movies, websites, interviews, or any information that did not come from you. Commonly-known information, such as the date of Independence Day, does not need to be cited, but anything more detailed than that, such as where the Declaration of Independence was signed and who exactly signed it, should be cited.

The most common citing format is the Modern Language Association (MLA) format. In high schools and colleges, most people will ask for this style. Other citation styles are outlined by the American Psychology Association (APA), and the Chicago Manual of Style (CMOS). The examples below use MLA style.

Book

The most common work cited, a book with one author, is set up like this (with each line after the first indented five spaces from the left margin):

• Author's last name, first name. Title of the book. Publishing city: Publishing house, Year it was published.

For example, a novel would be cited like this: Niffenegger, Audrey. The Time Traveler's Wife. Orlando: Harborcourt, 2003.

Other common sources you may need to cite include:

Multiple Authors

If a book has two or three authors, list them in the order they appear in the book. Reverse only the first author's name. List the other authors' names in normal form.

• First author's last name, first author's first name, and second author's first name second author's last name. Title of the book. Publishing city: Publishing house, Year published.

Example: Smith, John, and Karen S. Johnson. Get Organized. Newbury: Green Press, 2006.

For more than three authors, you can either list all the authors as they appear in the book, or you can list the first author, then follow it with et al. ("and others").

Example: Jones, Henry, et al. Smart Shopping. Newbury: Green Press, 2006.

or

Jones, Henry, Martha Walsh, John Smith, Laura Moore, and Dorothy Frye. Smart Shopping. Newbury: Green Press, 2006.

If the book has editors and not authors (books of critical essays on one subject often do), treat the editors like the authors, followed by "ed."

Example: Johnson, Edward, ed. The Collection of Critical Essays. Newbury: Green Press, 2006.

Magazine

To cite an article from a magazine, it is necessary to have the publication "month year," or "week month year," or even "day month year" depending on how frequently the magazine publishes.

• Author's last name, first name. "Title of the article." Magazine title Publication Day Month Year: Start page-end page.

Example: Grossman, Lev. "The Geek Shall Inherit the Earth." Time 3 October 2005: 98-98.

Newspaper

For a newspaper, list the date the article was published.

• Author's last name, first name. "Title of the article." Newspaper title Publication Day Month Year: Start page-end page.

Example: Kolata, Gina. "Experts Unlock Clues to Spread of 1918 Flu Virus." New York Times 6 October 2005: A1-A20.

Film

To cite a movie, you may use shortened versions of words, to avoid having to fill out director, producer, author, etc. each time. The minimum citation needed is, in this order,

• Title of the movie, Director, Name of the distribution company, Year of release.

Other information, such as who wrote it, who produced it, and who starred in it, can be added between the title and the distribution company. This information can usually be found on the movie's packaging, or online. Here are examples of both approaches:

Minimal:

• The Color Purple. Dir. Steven Spielberg. Warner Studios, 1985.

With more information:

• Babe. Dir. Chris Noonan. Prod. Bill Miller, George Miller, and Doug Mitchell. Narr. Roscoe Lee Brown. Perf. Christine Cavanaugh and James Cromwell. Universal Studios, 1995.

Note that with movies, it is not necessary to use the last-name-first format, because you are using the title of the movie to cite, not a specific person.

Internet Articles

As with magazines, the Internet article is set in quotations and the website or article's original source is underlined. The first date used is the date the article was written, and the second date is when the researcher visited the site. Even if you use an article you found online and the article is from a magazine, you must treat the article like an Internet source.

• Author's last name, first name. "Title of the article." Website, online journal or article's original source Publication Day Month Year: Start page-end page. Database name. Day Month Year. <Electronic address or URL>.

Example: Grossman, Lev. "The Geek Shall Inherit the Earth." Time 3 October 2005: 98-98. Business Source Premier. 5 November 2005. <http://search.epnet.com>.

When accessing an article via an online database, such as EBSCOhost, the complete citation is provided on the "source" field. Also, many current word processing programs will try to turn the web address into a hyperlink. If this happens, right click on the link and press "remove hyperlink."

Writing a Research Paper 

Contents

Step One: Understanding the Scope of Your Assignment 

  1. What are the page requirements for this paper? 

  2. Will this paper research a broad topic or specific book or text? 

  Broad topic: 

  Specific text: 

  3. Is this paper argument-based, research-based, or both? 

  A research-based paper: 

  An argument-based paper: 

  An argument-based research paper: 

  4. What point of view should be used in writing the paper? 

  5. What kinds of sources are acceptable for your topic? 

  6. What citation style does your teacher prefer you use (APA, MLA, Chicago)? 

Step Two: Choosing Your Topic 

Step Three: Beginning Your Research 

  Finding Information: 

  Preliminary Research: 

  Secondary Source Searching: 

Step Four: Taking Notes 

  Be Careful with Citations: 

Step Five: Sorting Note Cards and Making a Working Outline 

  Sorting Cards: 

  After you are satisfied with the quantity and divisions of your pile, begin to decide the best order in which to present this information. 

  Creating a Working Outline: 

Step Six: Drafting, Integrating, and Balancing Your Paper 

Step Seven: Revising 

Step Eight: Editing and Proofreading 

  Proofreading: 

How to Plan

Writing a research paper can be an exciting and rewarding challenge. The key to success is allowing yourself enough time to uncover and gather all the information you need. So before you start researching and writing, create a schedule to ensure that you stay organized and focused.

Below is an example of how much time the average student will spend on each step outlined in this guide. This will hold true for a paper of 5 to 10 pages. For longer papers, add more time to the research and drafting steps.

Step One: Understanding the Scope of Your Assignment – 30 minutes

Step Two: Choosing Your Topic – 1 to 2 hours

Step Three: Beginning Your Research – 10 to 15 hours

Step Four: Taking Notes – 10 to 15 hours

Step Five: Sorting Note Cards and Making a Working Outline – 30 minutes to 1 hour

Step Six: Drafting, Integrating, and Balancing Your Paper – 3 to 5 hours

Step Seven: Revising – 2 to 3 hours

Step Eight: Editing and Proofreading – 2 hours

These are average estimates that will vary depending on the length of your paper, your experience with the research process, your writing ability, and your ability to focus your working time effectively.

Step One: Understanding the Scope of Your Assignment

When beginning a research paper, you first need to ask yourself a number of questions:

1. What are the page requirements for this paper?

It is important to understand your teacher's expectations and how long the paper should be.

Teachers may want to challenge your ability to edit the research material gathered and understand how to choose the most relevant information.

More is not always better. However, keep in mind that meeting only the minimum required number of pages may yield only an average grade at best.

2. Will this paper research a broad topic or specific book or text?

Broad topic:

If you are researching a broad topic and need to cover a lot of ground, divide your paper into sections before you begin your research.

For example, if you are writing a broad-scoped paper on Charles Dickens, you may be overwhelmed at the sheer volume of research and reference material available. Choosing and limiting what you hope to cover will make the research more focused and help you avoid wasting time.

Specific text:

If your paper focuses on a specific book or text, for example, Charles Dickens's "Bleak House," you should brainstorm what information you want to present before researching sources.

Initial brainstorming will help you focus on sources you are interested in, making it easier to browse for specific titles of books, articles, table of contents and other sources that you would like to include in your paper.

3. Is this paper argument-based, research-based, or both?

A research-based paper:

Provides a variety of informational sources and a balanced view of the topic.

Gives several sections of information that reflect general knowledge and study of that text.

An argument-based paper:

• Asks the author to form a thesis and prove a particular point.

An argument-based research paper:

Will have a point of view.

For Example: "Dickens's novel ‘Bleak House’ was constructed as a direct response to political concerns of the day."

4. What point of view should be used in writing the paper?

• First Person Point of View: Uses "I" and is employed in personal research papers when your experience or opinion is directly desired by your teacher. "We" is a form of first person plural that is often used as a writing "style" (Example: "We see that the characters are not fully developed."). While this is a stylistic choice, it also has implications for the reader: do you really want to suggest that you know how your teacher or any other reader of your paper interprets a text?

• Second Person Point of View: Uses "you" and is useful when a teacher wants you to directly address your reader (Example: "You can see that this president made many enemies.").

• Third Person Point of View: No visible speaking voice. In this point of view, the author is implied (the implication is that the ideas in the paper are yours, eliminating the need for "I"). Using "I think" or "I believe" usually weakens a paper that is strengthened by impartial statements (Example: "I believe Dickens meant to symbolize the working poor in this section of the story", versus "Dickens means to emphasize the working poor in this section of the story.").

5. What kinds of sources are acceptable for your topic?

While searching an academic database or the World Wide Web, you may find information that is not "academic enough" to be included in your paper and counted as a source. This usually includes plot summaries, reviews, and articles in trade publications, personal websites and popular magazines.

There are, however, some topics, such as sports, current events, popular culture, etc. You will need to determine what kind of balance between academic and popular sources your essay requires.

You will also need to determine whether you can use electronic information exclusively, or if you will have to look at an actual book/journal. Your teacher may also give you guidelines on the number of citations expected in the paper.

6. What citation style does your teacher prefer you use (APA, MLA, Chicago)?

Do not assume that you will be able to use whatever style you are most accustomed to.

Knowing the citation style will affect not only how you research and take notes, but also how you construct your paper's content.

Step Two: Choosing Your Topic

A teacher may simply give you a topic, in which case you don't have the burden of choosing. Alternatively, your assignment may be "open-ended," with a general statement like "write a research paper based on something we have covered in class." Another open-ended possibility is a teacher providing a list of possible topics to be chosen on a first-come-first-served basis.

If you have an open-ended assignment, choose your topic as soon as possible. You don't want to put off deciding what to write about until the last minute.

Do some preliminary research and then decide. You should discuss your idea with your teacher to make sure it's appropriate.

The open-ended assignment requires that you act quickly to secure the topic you feel most comfortable with. Because a paper is almost always better when a writer is actually interested in the topic, it is a good idea to choose what you like rather than waiting until the last minute and taking a topic by default because it's the only one left.

Step Three: Beginning Your Research

Finding Information:

Take time to visit to the library, as it is the best place to start your quest for information. In a school library it should be easy to find a reference librarian. Find the reference desk and ask for guidance. A public library may necessitate more patience on your part, as staff is usually quite busy.

If the library is not convenient, you may be able to access the catalog and databases from your home computer.

Expect to have some difficulty obtaining sources and plan your work accordingly. Gather source material as early as possible.

Preliminary Research:

Do some very simple searches on an online search engine.

"Googling" your topic can be done in several quick sessions, and often requires much less attention and note-taking.

A reference librarian can also be of great help in pointing out general and specific resources.

Secondary Source Searching:

Secondary source searching requires more organization. You should ideally go to the library or a database with a list of some titles from your preliminary searches. Database searching will yield far more information than you will likely need, so it is important to be focused. At the same time, as you locate information, you should revise elements of your paper's content depending on what you find and what interests you.

You can begin by searching for titles or authors. Then, browse plot summaries and reviews. After this, focus on criticism, interviews, and essays that will provide support for your paper. When using a database, skim each source directly via the full text link before printing them out. At the same time, you can start processing your "working bibliography," which is a list of information on each source you are evaluating.

Step Four: Taking Notes

Many writers resist taking actual physical notes on their subject, since it can be time consuming. However, this is one of the most successful ways to keep your information organized and avoid a paper that gives information by source rather than by topic.

An alternative to note cards is to simply highlight important information on printed copies of sources and then try to assemble this in some coherent way as you are drafting the paper.

Another method often used is to do the entire process electronically. In this method, you read the online text, never print it out and simply cut and paste what you think is important into another document. However, this approach is not recommended because it will almost always lead to some form of plagiarism.

Be Careful with Citations:

A common mistake in taking notes and citing sources is failing to differentiate between an editor and an author. If you aren't paying close attention and miss the "ed." either before or after the name, you will cite the source incorrectly.

An editor has an essential job in creating the text, often writing an introduction, compiling essays from various writers and perhaps contributing a chapter. But, in such volumes, each chapter of the book is probably written by a separate author or authors. These names should appear in the table of contents and at the start of the chapter.

A similar mistake is failing to give credit to an authored entry in an encyclopedia or dictionary, noting only the publisher or editor instead. Authors of these entries are usually listed at the end of the entry in small print and are easy to miss.

Step Five: Sorting Note Cards and Making a Working Outline

Once you have completed your research, sit down with your stack of note cards in front of you. The number of note cards you gather for your paper will vary significantly depending on your topic and assignment. A rough estimate is that you may need 50 to 100 cards for a 5 to 10 page paper.

Sorting Cards:

One by one, read the notes you have written and sort each one into a pile reflecting a topic or area of research.

Ideally, you should have at least five piles, since less than that will make it difficult to create a paper with enough divisions.

Make sure to designate one pile for your introduction and one for your conclusion.

Focus on having the same number of cards per pile to help add balance to your paper.

If you have a lot of piles with only one or two cards in them, you can either eliminate them or try to fit them into another pile by broadening that pile's "topic."

Do not remove cards from a pile that duplicate the same information from two sources. This, in fact, will be used to add balance and support to the paragraphs, illustrating that you researched several sources.

Your piles should generally never have information from only a single source, since your report will end up being more like a book report than a research paper. An exception to this is if the pile contains the primary source information.

Keep a pile of "leftovers," or cards that you think are important but don't really fit into your other piles. You may decide later that they are actually relevant to one of your piles and/or your introduction and conclusion.

If you have a pile with too few cards that you think reflects an important aspect of your paper, you can now return and do some focused searching to add information to that area.

After you are satisfied with the quantity and divisions of your pile, begin to decide the best order in which to present this information.

Think logically about what a reader needs or wants to know first, and play around with this order until satisfied.

Make some notes for each pile that generally describes the topic addressed on the cards and put them on the pile.

Number each pile to determine the order in which the information will appear in your paper.

Use a rubber band or envelope to keep piles separate from one another

Creating a Working Outline:

To create your working outline, begin with the first pile and fill in that topic heading as the introduction.

Continue with each pile until all the major headings for your outline are complete.

Go back pile by pile and fill in the subdivisions of the main topic heading to reflect your notes.

You may want to ask your teacher whether a full sentence outline is necessary or if short phrases will work.

Step Six: Drafting, Integrating, and Balancing Your Paper

Now, you can begin drafting your paper. Unless specified by your instructor, you should always use fonts and colors that are easy to read and standard margin and spacing options.

With your outline and note card piles in front of you, begin to draft your paper section by section.

A good way to do this is to review all the note cards, and then put them away as you begin to draft.

Work on at least one section per sitting to maintain continuity in writing and thought.

You may decide to leave the introduction until last, and begin with your first main topic. This is often a good idea, because you don't really know exactly how your paper is going to turn out until it is drafted

After you have written your basic paragraph(s), then go back to your note cards to supply the specific support you need to fill in the gaps.

You may feel like you need more information for some paragraphs. Wait until you have drafted the entire paper before you return to research your gaps.

Put your paper away for at least one day (ideally two) before you try to revise it.

Plan for computer malfunction, just in case. Save a copy of your draft on someone else's computer, or on a network drive, burn a disk or email a copy of the paper to yourself.

Save grammar, spelling and sentence editing for the final step.

Step Seven: Revising

Revising can be a difficult idea to grasp, but if you take the time do to it, it will most certainly result in a higher-quality paper. In this step you are still not concerned with spelling, grammar and sentence construction – you are focusing on the content and organization of your paper.

Did you follow your working outline?

Do you see a better organizational system for your paper? Don't be hesitant about switching paragraphs around if needed.

Do you have enough evidence to support your conclusions?

What can you do to make your paper even better?

Step Eight: Editing and Proofreading

Editing your paper is one of your final steps. In addition to reviewing your paper yourself, it can also be useful to have a third party review it. Print your paper at least a day early to avoid last minute glitches, such as running out of ink, paper jams, printer breakdowns, network problems and possible long lines at school computer printing stations.

When you edit, concentrate on sentence structure, length and variability.

Are all your sentences of the same length and do they use the same syntax (subject/verb)? If yes, try to vary this.

Have you correctly cited all material in your text?

Are you over-citing a single source? If so, find other sources that provide similar information and substitute one for another.

Is your paragraphing right? Do you have paragraphs that are more than a page long? Do you have introductory and concluding sentences in each paragraph and transitions that link one idea to the next?

Proofreading:

When proofreading, check for grammar and spelling mistakes. Do not rely solely on your computer's "spell check" or "grammar check" function.

Be careful when using a thesaurus: often, substituting words will not make sense in the context of your sentence.

Ideally, you should do your final proofreading after a day or so of not looking at your paper. 

Giving an Oral Presentation 

Contents

Determining the Guidelines 

Organizing the Presentation 

Giving the Presentation  

In many ways, giving an effective oral presentation is similar to writing a good paper: the key difference is the way that the message is delivered. Instead of having several sheets of paper in front of them, the audience has a speaker. In addition to preparing your message for listeners instead of readers, you will need to spend time preparing yourself.

Determining the Guidelines

• Time. Find out how long you will be expected to speak. This will help you decide the amount of information you will reasonably be able to cover and help you pace your presentation accordingly. Make sure that you choose a subject that is narrow enough to be adequately covered in the time allowed while meeting your teacher's requirements.

• Visual aids. Visual aids can help illustrate key points of your presentation, but you must make sure that they don't distract either you or your audience. Find out the kinds of visual aids you will be allowed to use and make sure that they are free of spelling and grammatical errors.

• Q&A. You will probably be expected to answer questions from the audience when you have completed your prepared presentation. In addition to being comfortable with your own opinions on the topic, you will need to familiarize yourself with opposing viewpoints in order to address them when they come up. Don't be caught off guard!

Organizing the Presentation

• Introduction: Get their attention. The next time you are browsing TV channels or websites, pay attention to how long you spend on each one before deciding to move on. That will give you an idea of how long you have to capture your audience's attention. It's important to begin your presentation with a memorable quotation, startling statistic, humorous anecdote or other attention-getting device.

• Tell the audience what you're going to tell them. Tell the audience the main idea of your presentation. This can usually be kept to a sentence or two. Then tell them the main points your presentation will cover and in what order. This helps both you and your listeners stay focused.

• Tell them. This is where you develop the main points that you outlined for your audience in the introduction. Avoid using too many main points or they may lose track. Make sure that you cover every point you promised in sufficient detail.

• Use transitions. It's important to remind your audiences how each of your main points relates to your thesis and to build a logical progression from one point to the next.

• Conclusion: Tell them what you've told them. Using the same key words that you used during the body of your presentation, make a fresh, concise restatement of your main idea. This helps your audiences remember you main points and gives them a clear understanding of your purpose.

• Leave your audience with something to think about. Just as important as capturing your audience's attention at the beginning of your presentation is leaving them with a strong final impression appropriate to the subject of your presentation. This can involve leaving your audience with a thought-provoking question, making an emotional appeal, suggesting a course of action, or using a memorable quotation. Whatever your purpose, plan a memorable closing line, rehearse it and use it.

Giving the Presentation

• Note cards. You may find it less awkward to work with note cards than with full sheets of paper. It is easier to flip through note cards during your presentation and refer back to them during Q&A. You should use your cards only to help keep your presentation on track. Avoid using them as a script. One of the purposes of oral presentations is to demonstrate your ability to effectively communicate with your audience. This is harder to do when you are constantly looking at your note cards.

• Speak clearly. Pay close attention to your diction and pronunciation so that everyone in the audience can hear and understand you.

• Make eye contact. Maintaining eye contact with a friend or interested listener will make you appear more confident.

• Nervousness. It is completely normal to be nervous in front of an audience. To help deal with this, take a few deep breaths to relax yourself before you begin. Don't hesitate to pause and take another deep breath if you find yourself rushing or hyperventilating. Being nervous won't necessarily hurt your performance. It can keep you from lapsing into a monotone. As long as you have thoroughly prepared, a little nervous extra energy can help keep your audience's attention.

• Practice. Giving a good oral presentation doesn't have to be difficult but it does require using some skills that you probably don't use every day. The more you practice speaking, handling your note cards, working with your visual aids and answering questions, the better your oral presentation will be.